Richard Nixon
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Richard Milhous Nixon
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| In office January 20, 1969 – August 9, 1974 |
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| Vice President | Spiro Agnew (1969–1973) vacant (Oct.–Dec. 1973) Gerald Ford (1973–1974) |
| Preceded by | Lyndon B. Johnson |
| Succeeded by | Gerald Ford |
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| In office January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961 |
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| President | Dwight D. Eisenhower |
| Preceded by | Alben W. Barkley |
| Succeeded by | Lyndon B. Johnson |
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| In office December 1, 1950 – January 1, 1953 |
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| Preceded by | Sheridan Downey |
| Succeeded by | Thomas Kuchel |
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Member of the United States House of Representatives from California's 12th congressional district
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| In office January 2, 1947 – December 1, 1950 |
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| Preceded by | Jerry Voorhis |
| Succeeded by | Patrick J. Hillings |
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| Born | January 9, 1913 Yorba Linda, California |
| Died | April 22, 1994 (aged 81) New York City |
| Political party | Republican |
| Spouse | Thelma Catherine "Pat" Ryan |
| Children | Tricia Nixon Cox Julie Nixon Eisenhower |
| Alma mater | Whittier College Duke University School of Law |
| Occupation | Lawyer |
| Religion | Quaker |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Service/branch | United States Navy |
| Years of service | 1942–1946 |
| Rank | Lieutenant Commander |
| Battles/wars | World War II (Pacific Theater) |
Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was the thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969–1974), and the only president to ever resign the office. He was also the thirty-sixth Vice President of the United States (1953–1961).
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. In 1937 he graduated from Duke University School of Law and returned to California to practice law in La Mirada. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, he joined the United States Navy and rose to the rank of Lieutenant Commander during World War II. In 1946 he was elected as a Republican to the House of Representatives representing California's 12th Congressional district, then in 1950 was elected to the United States Senate. He was chosen by Republican Party nominee Dwight D. Eisenhower to be his running mate in 1952 and served as vice president from 1953 until 1961. Despite announcing his retirement from politics after losing the 1960 general election and a failed run for Governor of California in 1962, Nixon was elected to the presidency in 1968, and was re-elected by a landslide four years later.
Under President Nixon, the United States followed a foreign policy marked by détente with the Soviet Union and rapprochement with the People's Republic of China. Nixon successfully negotiated a ceasefire with North Vietnam, effectively ending American involvement in the Vietnam War. In the face of likely impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal,[1] Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974. His successor, Gerald Ford, issued a pardon for any federal crimes Nixon may have committed while in office.
Nixon suffered a stroke on April 18, 1994 and died four days later, at the age of 81.
Early life
Richard Nixon was born on January 9, 1913 to Francis A. Nixon and Hannah Milhous Nixon in a house his father had built in Yorba Linda, California. His mother was a Quaker, and his upbringing is said to have been marked by conservative Quaker observances of the time, such as refraining from drinking, dancing, and swearing. His father converted from Methodist to Quakerism after his marriage.[2] Nixon had four brothers: Harold (1909–1933), Donald (1914–1987), Arthur (1918–1925), and Ed (born 1930).[3]
Nixon's early life was marked by hardships. Two of his brothers died before Richard was 21 and his family's ranch failed in 1922. The Nixons then moved to Whittier, California, the home of his mother's relatives, where his father opened a grocery store.[3]
Nixon initially attended Fullerton High School in Fullerton, but later attended Whittier High School, where he graduated second in his class in 1930. A lack of finances forced Nixon to decline a scholarship to Harvard University[4] and to Yale University;[5] he instead enrolled at Whittier College,[6] a local Quaker school, where he co-founded a fraternity known as The Orthogonian Society. Nixon was a formidable debater, a stand out in collegiate drama productions, was elected student-body president, played football, basketball, and ran track.[6][7] While at Whittier, he lived at home and worked at his family's store;[6] he also taught Sunday school at East Whittier Friends Church, where he remained a member all his life. In 1934, he graduated second in his class from Whittier, and went on to Duke University School of Law, where he received a full scholarship and graduated third in his class in June 1937.[6]
Law practice
Although Nixon's first choice was to get a job with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, he returned to California and was admitted to the Bar in 1937. He began working in the law offices of Wingert and Bewley,[6][8] where he worked on commercial litigation for local petroleum companies as well as on wills and other corporate matters. By his own admission Nixon would not work on divorce cases, saying that he was "severely embarrassed by women's confessions of sexual misconduct". Nixon found the job of a lawyer unexciting, but thought that it would gain him experience toward a future political career.[9] In 1938, he opened up his own branch of the law office in La Habra, California,[10] and the following year he became a full partner in the firm.[11]
Marriage
In January 1938 Nixon was cast in the Whittier Community Players production of The Dark Tower. There he played opposite a high school teacher named Thelma "Pat" Ryan.[6][12] Nixon pursued her, but initially Pat was not interested in a relationship. He began dropping in on her at her house unannounced and would take her on Sunday drives to the Quaker Sunday School where he volunteered as the Sunday school teacher.[13] After several proposals Pat eventually agreed to marry the future president and they wed at a small ceremony on June 21, 1940.[6]
After a honeymoon in Mexico, the Nixons moved to Long Beach, then settled into an apartment in East Whittier a few months later.[14] In January 1942, the Nixons moved to Washington, D.C. where Richard took a job at the Office of Price Administration.[6]
World War II
Nixon was eligible for a double exemption from military service, both as a Quaker with Quaker parents and through his job working for the OPA, but he soon left that post and was commissioned into the United States Navy in August 1942.[6] He received training at Naval Air Station Quonset Point, Rhode Island and was assigned to Ottumwa Naval Air Station, Iowa, for seven months, before being reassigned as the naval passenger control officer for the South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command, supporting the logistics of operations in the South West Pacific theater.[15][16] He began requesting more challenging duties and was given command of cargo handling units.[17] Nixon returned to the United States with two service stars (although he saw no actual combat) and a citation of commendation, and became the administrative officer of the Alameda Naval Air Station.[18] In January 1945 he was transferred to Philadelphia's Bureau of Aeronautics office to help negotiate the termination of war contracts, and there received another letter of commendation, this time from Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal. In October 1945, he attained the rank of lieutenant commander.[18] He resigned his commission on New Year's Day 1946.[19]
Congressional career
House of Representatives
Soon after the culmination of World War II, some Whittier Republicans approached Nixon about running for a seat in the United States House of Representatives.[20] Nixon accepted, and defeated seven term Democratic incumbent Jerry Voorhis in the November election to represent southern California's 12th Congressional district.[20] He helped finance the campaign with his World War II poker winnings.[21]
In Congress, Nixon supported the Taft-Hartley Act of 1948, and served on the Education and Labor Committee.[20] He was part of the Herter Committee, which went to Europe to prepare a preliminary report on the newly enacted Marshall Plan.[20]
Nixon first gained national attention in 1948 when his investigation on the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) broke the impasse of the Alger Hiss spy case. Nixon believed Whittaker Chambers's allegations that Hiss, a high State Department official, was a Soviet spy. Nixon discovered Chambers saved microfilm reproductions of incriminating documents by hiding the film in a pumpkin (these became known as the "Pumpkin Papers").[22] These documents were alleged both to be accessible only by Hiss, and to have been typed on Hiss's personal typewriter. Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950 for statements he made to the HUAC. The discovery that Hiss, who had been an adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, could have been a Soviet spy thrust Nixon into the public eye and made him a hero to many of Roosevelt's enemies, and an enemy to many of Roosevelt's supporters. In reality, his support for internationalism put him closer to the center of the Republican party. This case turned the young Congressman into a national, and controversial, figure.[20] Due to his popularity, Nixon was easily reelected in 1948.[20]
Senate
In the 1950 mid-term elections, Nixon challenged and defeated Democratic Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas in an historic landslide to win a seat in the United States Senate.[23] The campaign was very contentious. Nixon felt the former actress was a sympathizer to left-wing causes and said she was "pink right down to her underwear."[23] Douglas responded by bestowing upon Nixon the nickname "Tricky Dick".[23]
As a senator, Nixon took a prominent position in opposing global communism. He traveled frequently, speaking out against what he labeled as "the threat".[23] He also criticized what he saw as President Harry S. Truman's mishandling of the Korean War.[23] He supported statehood for both Alaska and Hawaii, voted in favor of civil rights, and favored disaster relief for both India and Yugoslavia.[24] He voted against price and other controls, illegal immigration, and public power.[24]
Vice Presidency (1953-1961)
Due to his anti-communist stance, the 39-year-old Nixon was selected by Republican party nominee General Dwight D. Eisenhower to be the Vice Presidential candidate at the Republican National Convention in July 1952.[25] In September, the New York Post produced an article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret cash fund for his personal expenses.[25] Nixon responded by saying that the fund was not secret and produced an independent audit showing that the funds were used only for political purposes.[25] Republicans, even those within Eisenhower's own campaign, pressured Eisenhower to remove Nixon from the ticket, but Eisenhower realized he would not win without Nixon.[26]
Nixon appeared on television on September 23, 1952 to defend himself, in a famous speech. He provided an independent third-party review of the fund's accounting, along with a personal summary of his finances,[25] The speech became better known for its rhetoric, such as when he stated his wife Pat did not wear mink, but rather "a respectable Republican cloth coat," and that although he had been given an American Cocker Spaniel named "Checkers" in addition to his other campaign contributions, he was not going to give the dog back[25] because his daughters loved it. This speech became known as the "Checkers speech." It resulted in much support from the Republican party base and from the general public,[27] thus keeping him on the ticket.[25] In the 1952 presidential elections, Eisenhower and Nixon defeated their opponents, Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson and Alabama Senator John Sparkman, by seven million votes.[25]
As Vice-President, Nixon expanded the office, making it an important and visible post.[25][28] Although he had little formal power, he had the attention of the media and the Republican Party. Using these, Nixon and Pat undertook many foreign trips of goodwill with the intent of garnering support for American policies during the Cold War.[25] On one such trip to Caracas, Venezuela, anti-American protesters disrupted and assaulted Nixon's motorcade, injuring Venezuela's foreign minister.[25] Nixon was lauded and attracted international media attention for his calm and coolness during the events.[25]
In July 1959, President Eisenhower sent Nixon to the Soviet Union for Moscow's opening of the American National Exhibition.[25] On July 24, 1959, while touring the exhibits with Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, they stopped at a model of an American kitchen and engaged in the impromptu "Kitchen Debate" about the merits of capitalism versus Communism.[25]
Nixon was the first Vice President to step in temporarily, and unofficially, to run the government. Nixon would conduct National Security meetings in the president's absence.[25] Nixon also stepped in to the Senate to interpret filibuster rules in order to ensure the passing of Eisenhower's 1957 civil rights bill, which would create the United States Commission on Civil Rights and protect voting rights.[29]
As Vice President, he officially opened the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley, Placer County, California.[30]
1960 presidential election
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In 1960, Nixon launched his campaign for President of the United States. He faced little competition in the Republican primaries, and chose former Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. as his running mate.[25] His Democratic challenger was John F. Kennedy, and the race remained close for the duration.[31] Nixon campaigned on his experience, but Kennedy called for new blood and claimed the Eisenhower-Nixon administration allowed the Soviet Union to overtake the U.S. in ballistic missiles (the "missile gap"). Kennedy told voters it was time to "get the country moving again."[32] In the midst of the campaign, Nixon advocated stimulative tax cuts in what became a supply-side theory.[33] Nixon presented a comprehensive plan for economic growth and reducing the national deficit, which appealed to many.[33]
A new medium was brought to the campaign: televised presidential debates. In the first of four televised debates, Nixon was recovering from illness and, wearing little makeup, looked wan and uncomfortable, in contrast to the composed Kennedy.[25] Nixon's performance in the debate was perceived to be mediocre in the visual medium of television, though many people listening on the radio thought Nixon won.[34]
That November, Nixon lost the 1960 election narrowly. The final count recorded that he lost by 120,000 votes, or 0.2%.[25] There were charges of vote fraud in Texas and Illinois, which Nixon supporters unsuccessfully challenged in both states as well as nine others.[35] The Kennedy campaign successfully challenged Nixon's victory in Hawaii; after all the court battles and recounts were done, Kennedy had a greater number of electoral votes than he held after Election Day.[35] Nixon halted further investigations to avoid a Constitutional crisis.[35] Nixon and Kennedy later met in Key Biscayne, Florida, where Kennedy offered Nixon a job in his administration, an offer which Nixon declined.[36]
Wilderness years
Following his loss to Kennedy, Nixon and his family returned to California, where he practiced law and wrote a bestselling book, Six Crises.[25] It recorded his political involvement as a congressman, senator and vice president and used six different crises Nixon had experienced throughout his political career to illustrate his political memoirs. The work won praise from many policy experts and critics. Ironically, Six Crises found a favorable critic in Mao Zedong, who referred to the book during Nixon's visit in 1972.[37]
In 1962, local and national Republican leaders encouraged Nixon to challenge the incumbent Pat Brown for Governor of California.[25] Despite initial reluctance, Nixon entered the race.[25] The campaign was clouded by public suspicion that Nixon viewed the governorship as a political "stepping-stone" to a higher office, some opposition from the far-right of the party, and his own lack of interest in being California's governor.[25] He lost to Brown by nearly 300,000 votes.[25] This loss was widely believed to be the end of his career;[25] in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election, Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent, saying, "You won't have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference."[25]The California defeat was highlighted in the November 11, 1962, episode of ABC's Howard K. Smith: News and Comment entitled "The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon". Some claimed that Smith's broadcast helped Nixon to begin what would become a six-year comeback to the presidency.[38]
The Nixon family traveled to Europe in 1963, and Nixon arranged to meet with the leaders of the countries he visited and give press conferences.[39] The family soon moved to New York City, where Nixon became a senior partner in the leading law firm Nixon, Mudge, Rose, Guthrie & Alexander.[25] Though largely out of the public eye, Nixon was still supported by much of the Republican base who favored his knowledge of politics and international affairs.[25] This reputation was enhanced when Nixon wrote an article in Foreign Affairs entitled "Asia After Vietnam",[25] in which he proposed a new relationship with China.[40] He campaigned for Republican candidates in the 1966 Congressional elections[25] and took an extended trip to South America and parts of the Middle East in 1967.[41]
At the end of 1967, Nixon was experiencing a crisis of indecision about whether to run for president the following year. He consulted with longtime friend Reverend Dr. Billy Graham, who urged him to run.[42] He later held a dinner at his home with friends and all supported a presidential bid, except for Pat.[42] He formally announced his candidacy for president of the United States on February 1, 1968.[42]
1968 presidential election
Nixon portrayed himself as a figure of stability during a period of national unrest and upheaval.[43] He appealed to what he called the "Silent Majority" of socially conservative Americans who disliked the hippie counterculture and the anti-war demonstrators, and soon won the nomination. Nixon's running mate, Maryland Governor Spiro Agnew, became an increasingly vocal critic of these groups, solidifying Nixon's position with the right.[44]
Nixon waged a prominent television campaign, meeting with supporters in front of cameras.[45] He stressed that the crime rate was too high, and attacked what he perceived as a surrender by the Democrats of the United States' nuclear superiority.[46] Nixon's campaign was aided by turmoil within the Democratic party:[43] President Lyndon B. Johnson, consumed with the Vietnam War, announced that he would not seek reelection; Senator Robert F. Kennedy was assassinated in Los Angeles; and the campaign of his opponent, Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey, experienced some rough periods following mass protests at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.[43] At the same time, Nixon appeared to represent a calmer society.[43] He promised peace with honor, and campaigned on the notion that "new leadership will end the war and win the peace in the Pacific." He did not give specific plans on how to end the Vietnam War, causing the media to intimate that he must have a "secret plan."[47] His slogan of "Nixon's the One" proved to be effective.[45]
In a three-way race between Nixon, Humphrey, and independent candidate George Wallace, Nixon defeated Humphrey by nearly 500,000 popular votes to become the 37th President of the United States on November 5, 1968.[43] Nixon celebrated when it was made official the following day, and Pat Nixon wept with joy and embraced the president-elect fervently.[48] Nixon had acheived a remarkable comeback from his "last press conference" six years before.[49]
Presidency (1969–1974)
First term
Nixon was inaugurated on January 20, 1969. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open to Isaiah 2:4, reading, "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into prunting hooks."[50] In his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon said, "The greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker."[50] Nixon set out to recontruct the Western Alliance, develop a relationship with China, pursue arms control agreements with the Soviet Union, activate a peace process in the Middle East, ensure that U.S. inflation did not soar, implement anti-crime measures, accelerate desegregation, and reform welfare.[50] The most immediate task, however, was the Vietnam War.[50]
Vietnam War
As a result of the Vietnam War, 300 American soldiers were dying per week. The Johnson administration had negotiated a deal in which the U.S. would suspend bombing North Vietnam in exchange for unconditional negotiations, though this faltered. Nixon had to implement a new policy to chance securing South Vietnam as a state that was not communist, or withdraw American forces completely.[51]
Nixon approved a secret bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in March 1969[52] (code-named Operation Menu) to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of the National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam. The Air Force considered the bombings a success.[52] Nixon then proposed simultaneous substantial withdrawls of North Vietnamese and American forces from South Vietnam one year after reaching a mutual agreement.[53]
In July 1969, the Nixons visited South Vietnam, where Nixon met with President Nguyen Van Thieu and with U.S. military commanders. Amidst protests at home, the president implemented the Nixon Doctrine, a strategy of replacing American troops with the Vietnamese troops, also called "Vietnamization."[43] He soon enacted phased U.S. troop withdrawls[54] but bombed Laos, in part to interdict the Ho Chi Minh trail that passed through Laos and Cambodia. Nixon's 1968 campaign promise to curb the war and his subsequent Laos bombing raised questions in the press about a "credibility gap," similar to that encountered earlier in the war by Lyndon B. Johnson.[54] In a televised speech on April 30, 1970, Nixon announced the incursion of U.S. troops into Cambodia to disrupt so-called North Vietnamese sanctuaries. This led to protest and student strikes that temporarily closed 536 universities, colleges, and high schools.[55]
Nixon formed the Gates Commission to look into ending the military service draft,[56] implemented under President Johnson. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription.[57] The draft was extended to June 1973,[58] though it was not continued after that. Military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the United States Army began.[59]
In December 1972, though very much concerned about the level of civilian casualties, Nixon approved Linebacker II, the codename for aerial bombings of military and industrial targets in North Vietnam.[60] After much fighting, a peace treaty was signed in 1973.[61] Under President Nixon, American involvement in the war steadily declined from a troop strength of 543,000 to zero in 1973.[43]
Economy
Under President Nixon, direct payments from the federal government to individual American citizens rose from 6.3% GNP to 8.9% in government benefits including Social Security and Medicare. Food aid and public assistance also rose, beginning at $6.6 billion and escalating to $9.1 billion. Defense spending decreased from 9.1% to 5.8% GNP. The revenue sharing program pioneered by Nixon delivered $80 billion to individual states and municipalities.[62]
Nixon enacted bold new economic policies, announcing them on August 15, 1971 in a televised speech to the nation. The Democratic Congress passed the Economic Stablization Act of 1970, giving Nixon power to set wages and prices; they did not believe he would use it and felt it would make him look indecisive.[63] While opposed to permanent wage and price controls,[64] Nixon imposed the controls on a temporary basis[65] in a 90 day wage and price freeze.[66] The controls (enforced for large corporations, voluntary for others) were the largest since World War II; they were relaxed after the initial 90 days, although unemployment did not decrease.[67] A Pay Board set wage controls of maximum 5.5% increase a year, and the Price Commission set a 2.5% annual limit on prices.[68] The limits did help to control wages, but not inflation.[69] Overall, however, the controls were viewed as successful in the short term[70] and were popular with the public, who felt Nixon was rescuing them from price-gougers and from a foreign-caused exchange crisis.[67][71] The next day, the Dow Jones measured a then-record one day increase.
Nixon was worried about the effects of increasing inflation and accelerating unemployment,[67] thus he indexed Social Security for inflation, and created Supplemental Security Income (SSI). Despite speeches declaring an opposition to the idea, he decided to offer Congress a budget with deficit spending to reduce unemployment and declared, "Now I am a Keynesian."[67] He also explored creating a universal minimum income and universal health care, but was not able to realize either.[72]
Another large part of Nixon's plan was the detachment of the dollar from convertability into gold.[66] By the time Nixon took office, U.S. gold reserves had declined from $25 billion to $10.5 billion. Gold was an underpriced commodity, as the dollar was overpriced as a currency. The United States was on the verge of running its first trade deficit in over 75 years.[73] The price of gold had been set at $35 an ounce since the days of Franklin Roosevelt's presidency; foreign countries acquired more dollar reserves, outnumbering the entire amount of gold the United States possessed. Nixon completely eradicated the gold standard, preventing other countries from being able to claim gold in exchange for their dollar reserves, but also weakening the exchange rate of the dollar against other currencies and increasing inflation by driving up the cost of imports.[67] Nixon felt that the dollar should float freely like other currencies.[74] Said Nixon in his speech:
"The American dollar must never again be a hostage in the hands of international speculators.... Government... does not hold the key to the success of a people. That key... is in your hands. Every action I have taken tonight is designed to nurture and stimulate that competitive spirit to help us snap out of self-doubt, the self-disparagement that saps our energy and erodes our confidence in ourselves... Whether the nation stays Number One depends on your competitive spirit, your sense of personal destiny, your pride in your country and yourself."[75]
Other parts of the Nixon plan included a 10% investment tax credit being reimposed, assisting the automobile industry by removing excise taxes (provided the savings were passed directly to the consumer),[74] an end to fixed exchange rates, devaluation of the dollar on the free market, and a 10% tax on all imports into the U.S.[66] The U.S. economy was gradually transformed into tertiary industry; U.S. income rose, and unionization declined.[66]
Nixon wanted to lift the spirits of the country as polls showed increasing concern about the economy. His program was viewed by nearly everyone to be exceptionally bold, and astounded the Democrats.[75] Nixon soon experienced a bounce in the polls.[76] His economic program was determined to be a clear success by December 1971.[77]
Civil rights
The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public schools in the South.[78] Strategically, Nixon sought a middle way between the segregationist George C. Wallace and liberal Democrats, whose support of integration was alienating some Southern white Democrats. His plan has since been known as the Southern strategy.[79] Nixon was determined to implement exactly what the courts had ordered—desegregation—but did not favor busing children, in the words of historian Conrad Black, "all over the country to satisfy the capricious meddling of judges."[80] Nixon, the Quaker, felt that racism was the greatest moral failure of the United States[81] and concentrated on the principle that the law must be color-blind: "I am convinced that while legal segregation is totally wrong, forced integration of housing or education is just as wrong."[82]
Nixon tied desgregation to improving the quality of education[81] and enforced the law after the Supreme Court, in Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education (1969), prohibited further delays. By fall of 1970, two million southern black children enrolled in newly created unitary fully integrated school districts; this meant that only 18% of Southern black children attended all-black schools, a decrease from 70% when Nixon came to office.[83] Nixon's Cabinet Committee on Education, under the leadership of Labor Secretary George P. Shultz, quietly set up local biracial committees to assure smooth compliance without violence or political grandstanding.[84] "In this sense, Nixon was the greatest school desegregator in American history," historian Dean Kotlowski concluded.[85] Historian Conrad Black concurred: "In his singular, unsung way, Richard Nixon defangled and healed one of the potentially greatest controversies of the time."[86]
Nixon immediately endorsed the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment after it passed both houses of Congress in 1971 and went to the states for ratification as a Constitutional amendment.[87]
U.S. space program
In 1969, Nixon's first year in office, the United States sent three men up to the moon, becoming the first nation in the world to do so. On July 20, Nixon addressed Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, two of the astronauts, live via radio during their historic Apollo 11 moonwalk. Nixon also placed a telephone call to Armstrong on the moon, the longest distance phone call ever,[88] and called it "the most historic phone call ever made from the White House."[89] He observed their landing in the ocean from the deck of the aircraft carrier Hornet.[89] All U.S. Project Apollo moon landings, and the attempted moon landing of Apollo 13, took place during Nixon's first term.
On January 5, 1972, Nixon approved the development of NASA's Space Shuttle program,[90] a decision that profoundly influenced American efforts to explore and develop space for several decades thereafter. Under the Nixon administration, however, NASA's budget declined.[91] NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine was drawing up ambitious plans for the establishment of a permanent base on the Moon by the end of the 1970s and the launch of a manned expedition to Mars as early as 1981. Nixon, however, rejected this proposal.[92]
Indo-Pakistani War
A conflict broke out in Pakistan in 1971 following independence demonstrations in East Pakistan; President Yahya Khan instructed the Pakistani Army to qualm the riots, resulting in widespread human rights abuses. President Nixon liked Yahya personally, and credited him for helping to open a channel to China, thus Nixon felt obligated to support him in the struggle.[93] But there were limits as to how far the United States could associate itself with Pakistan due to human rights abuse.[93] American public opinion was concerned with the atrocities[94] and the supression of over 10 million people into India.[93]
Nixon relayed messages to Yahya, urging him to restrain Pakistani forces.[95] His objective was to prevent a war and safeguard Pakistan's interests, though he was also fearful of an Indian invasion of West Pakistan that would lead to Indian domination of the sub-continent and strengthen the position of the Soviet Union,[96] which had recently signed a cooperation treaty with India. Nixon felt that the Soviet Union was inciting the country.[95]
Nixon met with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and did not believe her assertion that she would not invade Pakistan.[97] On December 3, Yahya attacked the Indian Air Force and Gandhi retaliated, pushing into East Pakistan.[98] Nixon issued a statement blaming Pakistan for starting the conflict but blaming India for escalating it[98] because he favored a cease-fire.[99] The United States was secretly encouraging the shipment of military equipment from Iran, Turkey, and Jordan to Pakistan, reimbursing those countries[100] despite Congressional objections.[101] A cease fire was reached on December 16 and Bangladesh was established.[102]
China
Relations between the Western powers and Eastern Bloc changed dramatically in the early 1970s. In 1960, the People's Republic of China publicly split from its main ally, the Soviet Union, in the Sino-Soviet Split. As tension along the border between the two communist nations reached its peak in 1969 and 1970, Nixon decided to use their conflict to shift the balance of power towards the West in the Cold War.[103]
In April 1971, the Chinese table tennis team invited the American table tennis team to attend a demonstration competition for a week in China.[104] Unbeknownst to the Americans, the invitation came upon the order of Mao Tse-Tung himself, who had taken note of Nixon's "subtle overatures" to improve U.S.-Chinese relations, including the conflict in Pakistan.[104] This was significant in that the fifteen-member table tennis team were the first Americans to enter China in more than twenty years[104] (the term "ping pong diplomacy" arose from this encounter).[105]
Chinese Premier Chou En-lai, through the Pakistani ambassador, had relayed a message to Nixon reading, "The Chinese government reaffirms its willingness to receive publicly in Peking a special envoy of the president of the United States, or the U.S. secretary of state, or even the president himself."[106] Nixon sent Secretary of State Henry Kissinger on a secret mission to China in July 1971 to arrange a visit by the president and first lady.[106] Soon, the world was stunned to learn that Nixon intended to visit Communist China the following year.[107]
In February 1972, President and Mrs. Nixon traveled to China, where the president was to engage in direct talks with Mao and Chou. Kissinger briefed Nixon for over forty hours.[108] Upon touching down, Nixon and Pat emerged from Air Force One and greeted Chou. According to Nixon biographer Stephen Ambrose:
"[Nixon] knew that when his old friend John Foster Dulles had refused to shake the hand of Chou En-lai in Geneva in 1954, Chou had felt insulted. He knew too that American television cameras would be at the Peking airport to film his arrival. A dozen times on the way to Peking, Nixon told Kissinger and Secretary of State William Rogers that they were to stay on the plane until he had descended the gangway and shaken Chou En-lai’s hand. As added insurance, a Secret Service agent blocked the aisle of Air Force One to make sure the president emerged alone."[109]
Over one hundered television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as television would capture the trips visuals much better while snubbing the print journalists Nixon depised.[109]
Nixon and Kissinger were soon summoned to an hour long meeting with Mao and Chou, at Mao's official private residence, where they discussed a range of issues.[110] Mao later told his doctor that he had been impressed by Nixon, who was forthright, unlike the leftists and the Soviets.[110] He also said he was suspicious of Kissinger[110] while the National Security Advisor referred to their meeting as his "encounter with history."[109] A formal banquet welcoming the presidential party was conducted that evening in the Great Hall of the People. The following day, Nixon met with Chou to discuss serious matters; during this meeting he stated that he believed “there is one China, and Taiwan is a part of China.”[111][112][113] When not in meetings, Nixon toured architectural wonders including the Forbidden City, Ming Tombs, and the Great Wall.[109] Americans received their first glance into China via Pat Nixon, who toured the city of Peking and visited communes, schools, factories, and hospitals. accompanied by the American media.[109]
The visit ushered in a new era of Chinese-American relations.[43] Fearing the possibility of a Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to American pressure for détente.[114]
Soviet Union
Nixon used the improving international environment to address the topic of nuclear peace. Following his successful visit to China, the Nixon administration drew up plans for the president to visit the Soviet Union. The President and First Lady arrived in Moscow on May 22, 1972.[115]
Nixon met with Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev, and engaged in intense negotiations regarding internation issues[115] with his Soviet counterpart.[43] out of this "summit meeting" came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact signed by the two superpowers,[43] and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new era of "peaceful coexistence" and established groundbreaking new policy of détente (or cooperation) between the two superpowers. Détente would replace the hostility of the Cold War and the two countries would live mutually. A banquet was held that evening at the Kremlin.[115]
Nixon extended the Nixon Doctrine from Vietnam to his policy toward the Soviet Union, believing that helping Iran become stronger would check the Soviets' power.[116] To win American friendship, both China and the Soviet Union cut back on their diplomatic support for North Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms.[117][118][119] Nixon laid out his strategy:
I had long believed that an indispensable element of any successful peace initiative in Vietnam was to enlist, if possible, the help of the Soviets and the Chinese. Though rapprochement with China and détente with the Soviet Union were ends in themselves, I also considered them possible means to hasten the end of the war. At worst, Hanoi was bound to feel less confident if Washington was dealing with Moscow and Beijing. At best, if the two major Communist powers decided that they had bigger fish to fry, Hanoi would be pressured into negotiating a settlement we could accept.[120]
Having made great progress over the last two years in U.S.-Soviet relations, Nixon planned a second trip to the Soviet Union in 1973.[121] He arrived in Moscow on June 27 to a welcome ceremony, cheering crowds, and a state dinner at the Grand Kremlin Palace that evening.[121] Nixon and Brezhnev met in Yalta, where they discussed a proposed mutual defense pact, détente, and MIRVs. While he considered proposing a comprehensive test-ban treaty, Nixon felt that it was a task that would take far too long to accomplish.[121] There were not any significant breakthroughs in their negotiations.[121]
1972 Re-election
In 1972, Nixon was re-elected in one of the biggest landslide election victories in U.S. political history, defeating Senator George McGovern and garnering over 60% of the popular vote. He carried 49 of the 50 states, losing only in Massachusetts and the District of Columbia.[122]
Second term
On October 10, 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned amid charges of bribery, tax evasion and money laundering during his previous tenure as Maryland's governor. Nixon chose Representative Gerald Ford, Republican Minority Leader of the House of Representatives, to replace Agnew.[123]
Continuation of economic changes
After he won re-election, Nixon found that inflation was increasing, and the legislation authorizing price controls expired April 30, 1973. Democrats in Congress wanted to impose national rent controls, freeze interest rates, and lower prices, but Nixon opposed their proposals.[69] The Senate Democratic Caucus recommended a 90-day freeze on all profits, interest rates, and prices.[70] Nixon re-imposed price controls in June 1973, echoing his 1971 plan, as food prices rose; this time, he focused on agricultural exports and limited the freeze to 60 days.[70] Nixon's speechwriter, William Safire, later wrote that Nixon made the decision against his economic advisers' recommendations in a "dramatic move so as to appear 'Presidential.' "[70] This time, the controls were a dismal failure. Business owners now saw the controls as permanent rather than temporary, and voluntary compliance decreased.[70] The controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them at a loss.[70] The Congressional Quarterly wrote: "You may have chicken prices at 59 cents a pound during the freeze, but you may not have any chickens."[70] The price controls became unfavorable with the public and with businesspeople, who saw powerful labor unions as preferable to the price board bureaucracy.[70] The controls were slowly ended, and by April 30, 1974, the control authority from Congress had lapsed.[70] However, the controls on oil and natural gas prices persisted for a few years.[67] Nixon also dramatically increased spending on federal employees' salaries while the economy was plagued by the 1973–1974 stock market crash.[124][125]
Federal government initiatives
During the Nixon Administration, the United States established many government agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),[126] the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Railroad Passenger Corporation, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Supplemental Security Income program (SSI), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA),[67] and the Office of Minority Business Enterprise. In addition, the Post Office Department was abolished as a cabinet department and reorganized as a government-owned corporation: the U.S. Postal Service. Nixon impounded billions of dollars in federal spending and expanded the power of the Office of Management and Budget.[127][128] He established the Consumer Product Safety Commission in 1972,[126] promoted the Legacy of parks program, and implemented the